使用者:Weius-Zhishu/沙盒
2006–2008 Bangladeshi Political Crisis | |||
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日期 | 29 October, 2006 – 29 December, 2008 | ||
地點 | Dhaka, Bangladesh | ||
起因 | Appointment of Chief Adviser | ||
結果 |
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衝突方 | |||
領導人物 | |||
孟加拉國政府與政治 系列條目 |
The 2006–2008 Bangladeshi political crisis began as a caretaker government (CTG) assumed power at the end of October 2006 following the end of term of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party administration. The BNP government increased the chief justice's retirement age in an unconstitutional way to bias the appointment of the head of the caretaker government. CTG manages the government during the interim 90-day period and parliamentary elections. Political conflict began with the alleged appointment of a Chief Advisor, a role which devolved to the President, Dr. Iajuddin Ahmed. The interim period was marked from the beginning by violent protests initiated by the Awami League named Logi Boitha Andolan (Boat-hook and Oar Movement), with 40 people killed and hundreds injured in the first month.[1] The Bangladesh Nationalist Party had its own complaints about the process and the opposition.
After extensive negotiations as the CTG tried to bring all the political parties to the table and had an agreement for a scheduled election, on 3 January 2007, the Awami League said that it and the other parties of its Grand Alliance would boycott the general election to be held on 22 January 2007. They complained about the lack of an accurate voters list. More widespread violence and political rioting followed.[1]
The "bitter rivalry" between the Awami League and BNP has affected the nation for the last two decades, although their political positions are not so far apart.[1] The parties are led by women who represent assassinated leaders: Sheikh Hasina, the eldest daughter of father of the nation Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, since 1981 has been head of the Awami League. Khaleda Zia, the head of the BNP, is the widow of the late president Ziaur Rahman, who as president founded the party in the late 1970s.
On 11 January 2007 the military intervened to support the caretaker government of President Iajuddin, who had already declared a state of emergency. He accepted the resignations of most of his advisors. He also resigned as Chief Advisor, being replaced on 12 January by Fakhruddin Ahmed, who had worked for the World Bank. The government suppressed political activity to try to restore stability. In the spring, it started to work on corruption cases, charging 160 persons, including both party leaders, other politicians, civil servants and businessmen for actions going back to the late 1990s. The nation has had an extreme reputation for corruption under both the major political parties. In addition, some observers speculated that the caretaker government was trying to force both party leaders into exile to stabilise the country and reduce the political polarisation. The CTG also charged Sheikh Hasina with alleged murder for the deaths of four persons during protests in the fall of 2006. The High Court held that Khaleda Zia could not be charged under emergency law for events that happened prior to the emergency, but on appeal in September 2007, the Bangladesh Supreme Court ruled that the Zia trial should proceed. Near the end of 2008, the caretaker government moved to restore democratic government and held elections in December. The Awami League and Grand Alliance won by a two-thirds majority, and formed a government in 2009.
程序
[編輯]美國憲法第二條規定,為了擔任總統,個人必須是美國的自然出生公民,至少35歲,並且至少已經是美國居民14年。第二十二修正案禁止任何人被選為總統超過兩次。主要政黨的候選人通過一系列初選來尋求提名,這些初選選出的代表將在黨的全國大會上選擇候選人。每個黨的全國大會選擇副總統競選搭檔,以組成該黨的競選團隊。總統候選人通常會挑選副總統競選搭檔,隨後由黨的大會上的代表批准。
11月的總統大選是一種間接選舉,選民投票選擇一組選舉人團的成員;這些選舉人隨後直接選舉總統和副總統。[2]
選舉辦公室面臨著工作量增加和公眾審查的壓力,因此許多關鍵州的官員尋求更多資金來僱傭更多人員、提高安全性和擴展培訓。這種需求出現在許多選舉辦公室正因應退休潮和大量的公共記錄要求而疲於應對之時,這在一定程度上是由於前總統唐納·川普在2020年選舉中的失利所植入的選舉不信任。拜登和川普預計將在2024年再次成為總統候選人,這意味著2020年選舉的重演,這將是自1956年以來的首次總統選舉重演。[3]如果川普當選,他將成為第二位贏得非連續任期的總統,加入格羅弗·克利夫蘭,後者於1892年做到了這一點。[4]
川普是美國歷史上第一位被兩次彈劾的總統,也是第一位彈劾後再次參選的總統。川普首次在2019年由眾議院彈劾,理由是濫用職權和阻礙國會,因為他試圖迫使烏克蘭提供有損喬·拜登的信息,並就俄羅斯干預2016年美國選舉提供錯誤信息,同時扣留軍事援助。[5] 川普第二次彈劾發生在2021年1月13日,理由是「煽動叛亂」,因他在1月6日美國國會大廈襲擊事件中的角色。由於川普在兩起案件中均被參議院宣告無罪,他沒有被禁止在2024年尋求連任總統。[6]
科羅拉多州最高法院,[7] 伊利諾州的一個州巡迴法院和緬因州的州務卿裁定[8] :由於川普在1月6日國會大廈襲擊中的角色,根據美國憲法第十四修正案第3條,他無資格擔任公職,並因此試圖使他無法出現在選票上。[9][8] 然而,在3月4日,美國最高法院一致裁定,各州不能根據第十四修正案第3條確定國家選舉的資格。[10]
Restoration regime (1879–1931)
[編輯]PSOE由巴勃羅·伊格萊西亞斯於1879年5月2日在馬德里市中心太陽門附近的特圖安街的拉布拉酒館成立。[11][12] 伊格萊西亞斯是一名排字工人,曾與國際工人協會的西班牙分部以及保羅·拉法格接觸。[12] 這個新政黨的第一個綱領在同年7月20日由40人的大會上通過。PSOE及其附屬工會——工人總聯盟(UGT)的主要增長局限於馬德里-比斯開-阿斯圖里亞斯三角區域,一直持續到1910年代。[13] 1910年西班牙大選中,伊格萊西亞斯獲得國會議席,PSOE候選人在廣泛的共和社會主義聯盟中出戰,這一成就具有極大的象徵意義,並使該黨在國家層面獲得了更多的宣傳。[14]
在埃杜阿多·達托保守政府領導下,PSOE和UGT在1917年西班牙危機的背景下,發揮了罷工的領導作用。由於其對憲法秩序的嚴重破壞,罷工最終被軍隊鎮壓。[15] 組織委員會的成員(朱利安·貝斯特羅、弗朗西斯科·拉戈·卡瓦列羅、丹尼爾·安圭亞諾和安德烈斯·薩博里特)被控煽動叛亂,被判處終身監禁。[16] 他們被送往卡塔赫納監獄,但在1918年西班牙大選中被選入西班牙國會後一年被釋放。在1919至1921年第二國際危機期間,該黨內部在支持社會主義國際的成員與倡導加入共產國際的成員之間出現了緊張關係。連續兩次分裂的異見者願意加入共產國際,即1920年的西班牙共產黨和1921年的西班牙共產主義工人黨,從PSOE中分裂出去,並很快合併成立了西班牙共產黨(PCE)。PSOE在1923年至1940年間是勞工和社會主義國際的成員。[17] [18][19]
巴勃羅·伊格萊西亞斯於1925年去世後,朱利安·貝斯特羅接替他成為PSOE和UGT的主席。在1923年至1930年米格爾·普里莫·德里維拉的獨裁統治期間,PSOE和UGT中的法團主義派系願意與該政權進行有限合作,這與普里耶托和費爾南多·德洛斯·里奧斯等其他社會主義者捍衛的政治立場相對立,後者則倡導與共和派力量更緊密的合作。[20] 獨裁統治的最後幾年,法團主義派系之間的分歧日益顯現,這一分歧由弗朗西斯科·拉戈·卡瓦列羅體現出來,他開始支持與資產階級共和黨人的關係;而朱利安·貝斯特羅則繼續對他們保持極大的不信任。[21] 貝斯特羅拒絕參與革命委員會,導致他於1931年2月辭去了黨和工會主席的職務。他的黨主席職務由雷米希奧·卡貝洛接替。[22] [23]
Second Republic and Civil War (1931–1939)
[編輯]After the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic on 14 April 1931, three PSOE members were included in the cabinet of the provisional government, namely Indalecio Prieto (Finance), Fernando de los Ríos (Education) and Francisco Largo Caballero (Labour). The socialist presence remained in the rest of cabinets of the Social-Azañist Biennium (1931–1933).
After the November 1933 general election which marked a win for the centre-right forces in a climate of increasing polarization and growing unemployment, along with a desire to make amends for the mistake of not having sided with the republicans in the election against the united right, Largo Caballero adopted a revolutionary rhetoric, calling for violent revolution and a transitionary dictatorship of the proletariat.[24][25] Indalecio Prieto had also participated in the increasingly aggressive rhetoric, having already condemned the heavy-hand repression of the December 1933 largely anarchist uprising by the government, that has been cheered on by the CEDA leaders on parliament.[26] The Socialist Youth of Spain (JSE) also engaged into a shrilling revolutionary rhetoric while Besteiro firmly opposed the insurrectionary drift of the militancy.[27]
The formation of a new cabinet that included CEDA ministers in October 1934 was perceived among the left as a reaction,[28] with the CEDA party being indistinguishable from contemporary fascism to most workers[29] while CEDA leader Gil-Robles had advocated the establishment of a corporative state already in the 1933 electoral campaign.[30] The UGT called for a nationwide general strike for 5 October which developed into a full-blown insurrection (the Revolution of 1934) in the mining region of Asturias which was vocally supported by socialists such as Largo Caballero and Prieto. After the end of the revolt, whose repression was entrusted to generals Francisco Franco and Manuel Goded, most PSOE and UGT leaders were jailed.[31]
A growing rift between Prieto and Largo Caballero (with disparate views of politics, albeit sharing a general pragmatist approach) formed in 1935 while Besteiro's hold on the party diminished significantly.[32] Followers of Indalecio Prieto would ultimately become "estranged from the party left".[33] The PSOE formed part of the broad left-wing Popular Front electoral coalition that stood for election in the 1936 Spanish general election and achieved a victory in seats over the right.
In September 1936, a few months into the Spanish Civil War (which lasted until 1939), a cabinet presided over by Largo Caballero was formed (he also held the functions of Minister of War). In November, Largo Caballero succeeded in bringing some CNT members into his government. The left socialist caballeristas were revolutionary in rhetoric, although in reality they proposed moderate reformist policies while in government.[33] The May Days of 1937 in Barcelona destabilised the government which was replaced by a new cabinet led by Juan Negrín, another socialist.
西班牙自治右翼聯盟
西班牙自治右翼聯盟 Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas | |
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領袖 | José María Gil-Robles |
成立 | 4 March 1933 |
解散 | 19 April 1937 |
總部 | 馬德里, 西班牙 |
黨員 (1933) | 700,000 (party's claim)[34] |
意識形態 | 保守主義[34] 天主教保守主義[34] 西班牙民族主義 社團主義 |
政治立場 | Right-wing to far-right |
官方色彩 | Blue |
黨旗 | |
西班牙政治 政黨 · 選舉 |
西班牙自治右翼聯盟 (西班牙語:Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas,縮寫為 CEDA) 是第二西班牙共和國時期的一個西班牙政黨。[35] 作為一個天主教保守力量,它是安赫爾·埃雷拉·奧里亞的民族行動的政治繼承者,以「確認和保衛基督教文明原則」自居,將這一理論立場轉化為對共和國憲法中反天主教條款的政治要求進行修訂。CEDA視自己為一個防禦性組織,旨在保護宗教寬容、家庭和私有財產權。[36] 何塞·瑪麗亞·吉爾-羅布萊斯宣稱他的意圖是「給西班牙一個真正的統一,一個新的精神,一個極權政治......」,並繼續說「民主不是目的,而是達到征服新國家的手段。當時機成熟時,要麼議會順從,要麼我們將消除它。」[37] CEDA舉行了類似法西斯的集會,稱吉爾-羅布萊斯為「Jefe」,這是西班牙卡斯蒂利亞語中與義大利「Duce」相等的稱呼,並有時討論CEDA是否可能領導一場「進軍馬德里」(類似於義大利法西斯的「羅馬進軍」)來強行奪取權力。[38]
CEDA聲稱它在保衛西班牙的天主教會和「基督教文明」不受威權主義社會主義、國家無神論和宗教迫害的侵害。CEDA經常聲稱,領導第二西班牙共和國的極左政黨已經使政治成為馬克思主義與反馬克思主義的問題。[39] 隨著納粹黨在德國上台,CEDA模仿了納粹的宣傳策略,包括類似的強調服從權威、極端民族主義和社會等級。吉爾-羅布萊斯觀察了在紐倫堡舉行的納粹黨集會,並深受其影響,此後致力於在西班牙創建一個反馬克思主義和親天主教的單一政黨。[39]
CEDA主要是實踐中的羅馬天主教徒、中產階級和小農家庭的政黨。最終,它在1936年的選舉中成為西班牙最受歡迎的個別政黨。[40]
從1933年到1936年,CEDA未能取得足以讓其組成政府的實質性選舉成就(儘管其個人選票有所增加)[40],這導致右翼選民流失,轉而支持君主主義的西班牙更新黨和其領導人何塞·卡爾沃·索特洛。[41] 對卡爾沃·索特洛1936年遇刺和由所有極左政黨與西班牙天主教會相關的死亡小隊引發的紅色恐怖的憤怒,使得CEDA放棄了溫和立場,並支持針對共和國的軍事起義,其中包括將其選舉基金捐贈給國民派的初期領導人埃米利奧·莫拉將軍。[42] 隨後,許多CEDA青年運動成員——民族行動青年團(JAP)集體投靠了西班牙全國工團主義進攻團或「長槍黨」。[42]
參考文獻
[編輯]Councils of National-Syndicalist Offensive Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista | |
---|---|
領袖 | Onésimo Redondo Ramiro Ledesma Ramos |
成立 | 10 October 1931 |
解散 | 4 March 1934 |
併入 | Falange Española de las JONS |
黨報 | Libertad |
青年組織 | Juventudes del Frente Nacional |
Labor wing | Agrarian Trade Union Federation |
意識形態 | Fascism National syndicalism Spanish nationalism |
政治立場 | Far-right |
官方色彩 | Black and red |
口號 | ¡Arriba los valores hispánicos! ¡España Una, Grande y Libre! |
Template:Falangism sidebar Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista (直譯:「Councils of National-Syndicalist Offensive」, JONS) was a nationalist and fascist movement in 1930s Spain. In 1934, it merged with the Falange Española into the Falange Española de las JONS.
History
[編輯]JONS was founded on 10 October 1931 as the fusion of the group around La Conquista del Estado (The Conquest of the State) of Ramiro Ledesma Ramos and the Juntas Castellanas de Actuación Hispánica (Castilian Councils of Hispanic Action) of Onésimo Redondo. JONS, whose leadership was the Central Executive Triumvirate, began as a small organization, primarily amongst students in Madrid as well as workers and peasants in and around Valladolid. Its followers were called jonsistas.
In 1933, JONS experienced a period of expansion and started publishing a theoretical journal, JONS.
Amongst other endeavors, the organisation engaged in trade union work in Castile. In January 1933, Gutiérrez Palma set up a transport-workers union in Valladolid. Later the same year, JONS founded the Agrarian Trade Union Federation. In six months, it had set up 175 trade unions, which together claimed around 3,000 members. During that year, Onésimo Redondo returned from exile in Portugal and restarted the publication Libertad.
JONS expanded throughout the country. Its main strongholds were in Valencia, Granada, Valladolid, and Santiago de Compostela. It also established nuclei in Zaragoza, Bilbao, Salamanca, and Barcelona. The party started publishing Revolución in Zaragoza, Unidad in Galicia, and Patria Sindicalista in Valencia.
Merger with Falange Española
[編輯]At the national council of JONS, held clandestinely in Madrid on 12–13 February 1934, the organization formulated its intention to merge with the Falange Española of José Antonio Primo de Rivera. The merger formed the Falange Española de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista, or FE-JONS.
During the Spanish Civil War, Francisco Franco forced a further merger with the very different traditional Carlists to create FET y de las JONS, the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista or Movimiento Nacional ("National Movement"), henceforth the only legal political party in Francoist Spain. The Movimiento was disbanded upon Spain's transition to democracy in the late 1970s.
Sources
[編輯]- La Organización Sindical Española. Escuela Sindical 1961. 1961. Madrid. pp. 33–34.
歷史
[編輯]長槍黨成立於1933年10月29日,是西班牙工團主義運動(Movimiento Español Sindicalista, MES)的繼任者,後者也是在1933年早些時候成立的類似組織。創立大會在馬德里的喜劇劇院(La Comedia Theatre)舉行,由何塞·安東尼奧·普里莫·德里維拉、胡里奧·魯伊斯·德·阿爾達和阿方索·加西亞·瓦爾德卡薩斯主持。[43] 在1933年選舉不利後的1934年2月,何塞·安東尼奧·普里莫·德里維拉建議長槍黨與拉米羅·萊德斯馬的全國工團主義進攻團(Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista)合併,該提議於2月15日獲得通過。[44] 隨後成立了長槍黨工團主義進攻團(FE de las JONS)。
長槍黨與馬克思主義團體的第一次衝突發生在1933年11月5日,當時其激進分子在阿利坎特省阿爾莫拉迪的一場足球比賽中與社會主義同情者發生了衝突。[45]
曼努埃爾·赫迪利亞 | |
---|---|
出生 | Manuel Hedilla Larrey 1902年7月18日 安布羅塞羅,坎塔布里亞,西班牙王國 |
逝世 | 1970年2月4日 西班牙佛朗哥時期, 馬德里 | (67歲)
職業 | Mechanic, politician |
知名作品 | Testamento politico de Manuel Hedilla (1972) |
政黨 | 西班牙長槍黨 |
曼努埃爾·赫迪利亞·拉雷(Manuel Hedilla Larrey, 1902年7月18日 - 1970年2月4日) 是西班牙的政治人物,長槍黨的重要成員,也是早期與弗朗西斯科·佛朗哥爭奪權力的對手。他早期的職業是機械師。[46]
早年生活
[編輯]赫迪利亞出生在坎塔布里亞的一個村莊,他的父親是一名公務員,赫迪利亞還是個孩子時父親就去世了。他在畢爾巴鄂的羅馬天主教學校接受教育,後來成為一名船廠工人學徒,但由於西班牙航運業的衰落,其被迫面臨失業。[47] 在米格爾·普里莫·德里維拉政府期間,他重新找到了參與公路建設項目的工作,但在政權崩潰後他再次失業。他搬到馬德里開設了自己的汽車修理廠,儘管這家企業最終失敗了。[48]
參與長槍黨
[編輯]在馬德里,赫迪利亞在一個天主教乳品農場合作社擔任工程師,並在此期間加入了長槍黨的傳統主義派別。[49]赫迪利亞是長槍黨的創始成員之一,也是何塞·安東尼奧·普里莫·德里維拉的密切同事,後者在西班牙內戰初期被公認為所謂「老襯衫」的領導者。[50] 實際上,在普里莫·德里維拉去世後,他曾短暫地名義上成為法蘭赫的領導人,直到佛朗哥迅速為自己確立了該運動的完全控制。[51]
與佛朗哥的衝突
[編輯]儘管名義上赫迪利亞是桑坦德的長槍黨領袖,當北部起義開始時卻駐紮在拉科魯尼亞。因此,他負責維持這座城市的秩序,並對血腥鎮壓負有責任。儘管如此,赫迪利亞仍屬於長槍黨的左翼,強調該運動的無產階級和工團主義特徵,他很快就成為了國民軍不加選擇的暴力行為的批評者。[52] 何塞·安東尼奧·普里莫·德里維拉去世後,赫迪利亞被提名為他的繼任者,但他很快就陷入了自己與由阿古斯丁·阿斯納爾和桑喬·達維拉·伊·費爾南德斯·德塞利斯領導的正統主義者之間的權力鬥爭的中心。[53] 赫迪利亞支持社會改革的立場贏得了德國大使威廉·福佩爾將軍的支持,儘管赫迪利亞本人並未直接參與,但他的追隨者在1937年4月16日在薩拉曼卡採取行動,試圖從右翼領袖桑喬·達維拉手中奪取長槍黨總部的控制權。[54]
在此事件之後,赫迪利亞在兩天後獲得了對長槍黨的領導權。然而他的勝利是短暫的,佛朗哥通過立即宣布成立「西班牙國家工團主義進攻委員會方陣」來制衡他的權力,這是他所有追隨者,包括赫迪利亞的追隨者的大型政黨。[55] 赫迪利亞的密友何塞·薩因斯·諾斯納格爾向長槍黨領導人發送電報,告訴他們忽略所有除通過「正確的層級渠道」發布的命令,這進一步加劇了形勢。雖然該電報對於何謂「正確渠道」含糊其辭,但佛朗哥及其支持者將其視為要求成員僅服從赫迪利亞個人命令的警告[56] 然而,他高估了自己的力量,於4月25日被逮捕,並在次月因叛國罪被判處死刑。然而,在拉蒙·塞拉諾·蘇涅的建議下,判決被改為終身監禁,最終赫迪利亞只服刑四年。[57] 考慮到需要保持長槍黨人的支持,佛朗哥任命另一位「老襯衫」雷蒙多·費爾南德斯-庫埃斯塔為運動的領袖。[58]
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