傳播過程模型
傳播過程模型(英語:models of communication)概括了一系列信息傳播過程,大多數模型都嘗試概括一系列經過或不經過語言的信息傳播過程。[2][3]這類模型主要是為了簡單的概括較為複雜的通信和溝通過程以助於研究人員提出假設、作出預測,並將通信和溝通方面的概念應用到現實中。[4][5] 大多數傳播過程模型都或多或少的受到批評,批評者認為傳播過程模型「太過簡單」、遺漏了真正通信或信息傳播過程中比較重要的內容。[6][7][8]通信模型整體通常採用圖表的形式,大多數模型都有一些組件和流程高度相似,例如發送者以訊息的形式編碼其想要傳輸的訊息,並通過傳輸通道將編碼後的訊息發送給接收者,而接收者會接受並解碼信息,並給出某種形式的反饋。[9][10][11]
傳播過程模型可以按預期用途和概念化方法分類。按預期用途分類,可以分為通用和專用模型兩類,通用模型適用於各類通信和信息傳播過程,而專用模型則僅限於特定類型的信息傳播模式,例如大眾傳播。[12]按概念化方法分類,可以分為線性傳輸模型、交互模型等類別,線性傳播模型認為信息傳播是發送者單向編碼並向接收者發送信息的過程,而交互模型還包括反饋的過程,認為除了發送者發送的過程外,還包含接收者收到信息後進行反饋的過程。
信息傳播相關的問題最早可以追溯到古希臘時期,但是傳播學自20世紀中葉以來才發展成為一門獨立的學科。早期的傳播過程模型,例如香農-韋弗模型、貝爾洛模型等大都是線性傳播模型,並在傳播學的發展中被施拉姆模型這樣的交互模型取代。
定義和功能
[編輯]傳播過程模型概括了一系列信息傳播過程,嘗試從一般的傳播過程中抽象出最本質的組成元素和傳播過程來描述一類傳播過程。一些模型設計者認為,傳播過程模型僅應當呈現出傳播過程中最核心的部分。[2][3]廣泛意義上來說,儘管事實上傳播過程模型大多關注人和人之間的信息傳播過程,但信息傳播不止於人和人之間,還可以發生在人與動物、動物與人之間。在各種傳播過程模型中,一般模型嘗試概括包含語言和非語言交流以及聽覺、視覺、嗅覺等在內的各種傳播過程。[13][14][15]
由於傳播理論試圖提供一個能夠準確表示潛在現實的更抽象的概念框架,保羅·科布利、彼得·舒爾茨等學者將傳播過程模型同傳播理論區分開來。[6]羅伯特·克雷格認為,傳播過程模型主要展示了信息的傳播過程,而傳播理論則進一步解釋信息傳播的本質。[7]而弗蘭克·丹斯則認為,事實上沒有一種能夠完全概括的傳播過程模型,每種模型都只關注某些方面而缺失了其他方面,因而他認為採用一系列不同的傳播過程模型來描述信息的傳播過程。[8]
傳播過程模型對信息傳播過程的簡化和概括可以幫助學生和研究者判斷一個信息傳播過程中的主要步驟,並將相關理論運用於實際。[4][5] 圖形化的傳播過程模型使描述和解釋觀察到的現象變得更容易。同時,傳播過程模型可以指導假設和預測傳播的過程,並量化傳播過程。[16][17]傳播過程模型通過這些方式來改善傳播過程,避免噪聲造成的失真,監測社會和經濟因素如何影響信息傳播的質量。[18]
基本概念
[編輯]大多數傳播過程模型都有諸如「發送者」、「接收者」、「消息」、「傳輸通道」、「信號」、「編碼」、「解碼」、「噪聲」、「反饋」和「語境」這樣相同的概念,但是這些概念所指的含義因具體模型而異 ,而且有的時候可能會有多個術語描述同一個概念。[4][5][17]
消息具有多種形式,可以是口頭的,也可以是非口頭的,但一定承載了一定的信息。[5][19]當發送者產生消息後,消息就會編碼為能夠通過傳輸通道傳輸的信號,然後通過傳輸通道傳輸給接收者。例如,假定有一個人想要告訴別人他的想法,那麼首先他的大腦就會將他的想法處理為聲音,然後說出來,最後傳輸到接收者的腦中。解碼則是編碼的逆過程,當接收者接收到信號後就會將信號解碼為消息。[9][10][11]
噪聲是從發送者發送消息到接收者接收消息這段過程中對消息影響的總稱。有學者認為應當區分環境噪聲和語義噪聲,環境噪聲存在於從發送者到接收者這段路程中,而語義噪聲則存在於編碼或解碼的過程中,例如,當接收者沒有按發送者預期那樣理解消息中的一個模稜兩可的詞的時候,就屬於語義噪聲。[5][20]
反饋是指接收者接收到信息後返回給發送者的信息。[5]語境則是指信息傳播的環境,這是一個泛指,可以指代發送者、接收者所處的物理環境,也可以指代精神狀態及社會狀態等。[21]
分類
[編輯]傳播過程模型可以按多種方法分類。按預期用途分類,可以分為通用和專用模型兩類,通用模型適用於各類通信和信息傳播過程,而專用模型則僅限於特定類型的信息傳播模式。[12] 按概念化方法分類,可以分為線性傳輸模型和非線性傳輸模型等類別。大多數早期傳播過程模型都是線性傳播模型,認為信息傳播是發送者單向編碼並向接收者發送信息的過程。而非線性傳輸模型則是一個多方向的模型,信息在參與者之間循環流動。烏瑪-納魯拉認為,線性傳播模型描述的只是單一的傳播行為,而非線性傳播模型描述的則是整個傳播過程。[22][17][23]
線性傳播模型
[編輯]線性傳播模型認為信息的傳播是一個單向的過程,在這個過程中,發送者將信息發送給接收者,隨着接收者接收到信息,一次信息傳播過程隨即完畢。由於在線性傳播模型中不存在接收者返回信息給發送者的反饋,發送者無法確認接受者是否已經正確的收到信息。大多數早期傳播過程模型都是線性傳播模型,構成較為簡單,只關注發送者而不考慮接收者,因而無法準確捕捉到各種傳播形式的動態特徵。[5][24] 但是線性傳播模型也能很好地概括一些傳播過程,例如包括短訊、電子郵件等在內的大多數計算機的信息傳播過程。線性傳播模型主要包括亞里士多德、拉斯韋爾、香農-韋弗和伯洛的模型。[25][23][26][27]
交互模型
[編輯]交互模型中,信息的傳播是一個雙向的過程,發送者和接收者不是固定不變的。兩者互相交替,當接收者接收到發送者發送的信息時,就會返回給發送者一條信息,此時,接收者就變為了發送者。[5][24]
在一個交互模型中,首先,發送者發送一條消息,然後接收者接受並返回一條消息,此後發送者和接收者互相交替,如此循環反覆。這種反饋循環讓發送者能夠評估消息是否被接收者正確接收及消息是否被噪音干擾。[28]相較於信息傳播每個步驟中的技術問題,交互模型更傾向於關注交互過程,信息傳播過程中包括物理環境、心理和情感因素等在內的環境因素因此在交互模型中更為重要。[5][24]施拉姆的模型是最早的交互模型之一。[29]
報告模型
[編輯]報告模型與互動模型有兩個不同之處。一方面,報告模型認為發送和回應是同時進行的過程。例如描述聽眾如何使用身體姿勢和面部表情等非語言交流來給予某種形式的反饋。通過這種方式,聽眾可以在講者講話時發出信號以即時表明他們是否同意信息。這種即時反饋可能反過來影響講者在產生信息時信息的內容。[5][24][30]另一方面,報告模型強調信息的意義是在傳播過程中產生而非在傳播前產生的,例如社交關係、個人身份和社區環境等環境背景所對信息所造成的不同程度上的影響。[31]
報告模型側重於社會條件和環境背景對信息傳播的影響。在報告模型中,這些影響因素通常分類為社會背景因素、社交關係因素和文化背景因素。其中,社會背景因素明確或隱含地規範了什麼形式的信息和反饋是可接受的,例如在他人講話時插嘴打斷禮不禮貌、是否應當回應他人的問候等。社交關係則涉及交流者之間的先前關係和共同歷史,包括交流雙方是朋友、鄰居、同事還是對手等因素。而文化背景則確定了交流者的社會身份,如種族、性別、國籍、性取向和社會階層等。[5][32][33]巴恩倫德的傳播過程模型是早期比較知名的報告模型。[29]
人際溝通與自我溝通
[編輯]人際溝通是指在兩個或更多人之間的信息互相傳遞,例如在街上問候某人或打電話。[34][35][36]相對地,自我溝通就是一個人在內心中自己同自己所進行的信息傳遞,例如,一個人可能會因為即將下雨而思考是否要收衣服。[37][38]多數傳播過程模型都側重於描述人際溝通而非自我溝通,通常探討發送者如何編碼信息、信息如何傳輸、信息的扭曲以及接收者如何解碼和理解這條信息。[39]
也有一些專門描述自我溝通的傳播過程模型,多數描述自我溝通的傳播過程模型傾向於研究內外刺激所帶來的信息傳遞過程。描述自我溝通的傳播過程模型以多種方式解釋這些信息傳遞過程。[40]
參考資料
[編輯]註腳
[編輯]- ^ Fujishin 2009,第8頁.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 Ruben 2001,Models Of Communication.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 West 2010.
- ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Narula 2006,第10–12, 23–25頁,1. Basic Communication Models.
- ^ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 UMN staff 2013,1.2 The Communication Process.
- ^ 6.0 6.1 Cobley & Schulz 2013,第7–10頁,Introduction.
- ^ 7.0 7.1 Craig 2013,第46–47頁.
- ^ 8.0 8.1 Narula 2006,第23頁,1. Basic Communication Models.
- ^ 9.0 9.1 Sereno & Mortensen 1970,第122–3頁,Communication Theory: Decoding-Encoding.
- ^ 10.0 10.1 Chandler & Munday 2011,第125頁,encoding.
- ^ 11.0 11.1 Chandler & Munday 2011,第44頁,channel.
- ^ 12.0 12.1 Fiske 2011,第24, 30頁,2. Other models.
- ^ UMN staff 2013,1.1 Communication: History and Forms.
- ^ Chandler & Munday 2011,第60頁,communication models.
- ^ Craig 1999.
- ^ Narula 2006,第23–25頁,1. Basic Communication Models.
- ^ 17.0 17.1 17.2 McQuail 2008,第3143–9頁,Models of communication.
- ^ Narula 2006,第1–8頁,Introduction.
- ^ Steinberg 2007,第91頁.
- ^ Chandler & Munday 2011,第296頁,noise.
- ^ Chandler & Munday 2011,第72頁,context.
- ^ Narula 2006,第12–14頁,1. Basic Communication Models.
- ^ 23.0 23.1 Chandler & Munday 2011,第438頁,transmission models.
- ^ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Kastberg 2019,第56頁.
- ^ Narula 2006,第15頁,1. Basic Communication Models.
- ^ Cobley & Schulz 2013,第41頁.
- ^ Hakanen 2007,第28頁.
- ^ Narula 2006,第15–19頁,1. Basic Communication Models.
- ^ 29.0 29.1 Littlejohn & Foss 2009,第176頁.
- ^ Barnlund 2013,第48頁.
- ^ Chandler & Munday 2011,第387頁,Shannon and Weaver's model.
- ^ Blythe 2009.
- ^ Barnlund 2013,第58頁.
- ^ Barker & Wiseman 1966,第173頁.
- ^ Lederman 2002,第490–2頁,Intrapersonal communication.
- ^ Selnow & Crano 1987,第124頁.
- ^ UMN staff 2010.
- ^ Danesi 2009,第164頁.
- ^
- Wood 2012,第15–7頁
- Chandler & Munday 2011,第60頁,communication models
- Farley 1992,第481–484頁
- Barker & Wiseman 1966,第172頁
- ^
- Barker & Wiseman 1966,第173-7頁
- Deetz 2011,第633-4頁
- Vocate 1994,第181–2頁
- Barnlund 2013,第43-8頁
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